Beginning her observation of animals in their natural environment in the early 1930s, long before harsh, toxic chemicals were used on our soils and our animals, Pat Coleby’s experience has given her a rich understanding of the complex connections between the soil quality, food and the health of animals. Coleby has raised stock on her farm in Australia, and successfully cared for her own animals while also acting as a resource on animal care for farmers all over Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. In "Natural Goat Care" she brings us her encyclopedic knowledge of goats and their health care needs to North America. Through the use of vitamins and herbs, she teaches us how to prevent, and if it is too late for prevention, then how to treat any number of ailments that afflict the goat population. Coleby’s prescribed treatments for the following "Top Ten" goat ailments are just an example of the depth and breadth of her understanding of the needs and requirements of the goat world.

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Pat Coleby’s Natural Treatments
for the Top Ten Goat Ailments

Treatments

Many people do not notice an animal that is off color until it is really ill — and quite frequently it is often too late by that stage. The goat that is lying down when all the others are standing eating, or is lying apart from the others — that is the animal that should be checked. My method of shedding ensures that I immediately see any goat that does not dive straight into her food night and morning, or any goat that has a dirty back end — both indicators that all is not well. Teeth grinding, yawning and repeated stretching tells the goat farmer that the animal has a pain somewhere and trouble will soon follow if steps are not taken to rectify matters. It is not fair to a vet to allow the goat to reach a semi-moribund state and then expect a cure. Goats often give up when they feel ill and then it will very likely be too late by the time the vet arrives unless some supportive measures like B12 and vitamin C injections have been used.

I use vitamin C instead of antibiotics for infections, whether bacterial or viral. If it is used in large enough quantities, it works for viruses, unlike antibiotics, and it has no side effects. Antibiotics are used to offset the secondary (generally bacterial) infections which usually occur after a viral infection. Much of the work with vitamin C has been done with friends who are vets and we have been amazed at some of the results when all else has failed. I have had unfortunate experiences with some antibiotics, but in those early days no one, vets included, knew the right amounts for goats. They were assessed like sheep, as the weights were similar, until several very unlooked for results made us all realize that we had to have a totally different yardstick for goats. All antibiotics have their side effects and I prefer not to use them, although one vet I know of uses vitamins with them and gives good reports of the results. I do not use immunizations — and have found no need to do so — that is my choice. Like David Mackenzie, I see no use for them in properly looked after goats.

It is important to learn how to properly give an injection to a goat. The University of Melbourne taught me years ago never to give a goat an injection in the rump or rear of the back legs. This followed a post-mortem on a goat that died from an antibiotic which had been injected in her rear of the legs. I was told by a butcher that animals have a gland around there, and very few people even know of it. The needle had evidently hit it and the leg was already atrophying and the back leg would have eventually become useless. The vets told me that for intramuscular injections, the muscle in the side of the neck was always absolutely safe and never to give any injection without thoroughly cleaning the site first.

Intravenous injections are often very good if there are two people present, one to hold the animal still and one to inject. But if the goat is in a state of shock, or when the veins collapse, it is no use trying to find one. This frequently happens in the case of snake bite.

The bottom line in any sickness is good nursing, keeping a goat warm and as happy as possible under the circumstances. This can pose problems because sometimes a goat will fret if removed from its companions. A sick bay within sight and sound of the other goats is sometimes a good idea — other times they are better totally segregated — one has to play it by ear. It is no good just giving the animal the appropriate treatment and leaving it to sort itself out, they need care and reassurance.

Bloat

This condition is caused by potassium and magnesium being unavailable — generally in an overly rich pasture where clover is dominant. On a minerally balanced farm, the clover and grass are equal and bloat does not arise, however good the year. Tallow is another cause of bloat in kids which have been fed a milk replacer that contains processed or just plain tallow. Both stop the kids from obtaining the necessary nutrients from the milk and they die of bloat (and starvation). No therapeutic measures work when bloat is caused this way. This is because the tallow coats the inside of the alimentary canal and no nutrients can be absorbed.

In bloat the goat’s abdomen will be much distended, especially on the left side. If the goat is still able to walk, drench a quarter of a pint of cooking oil down the throat, then exercise while massaging the sides. This usually persuades the wind to be passed from one end or the other. As soon as the goat is relieved, give a dessertspoon of dolomite mixed in half a pint of cider vinegar which will help replace the missing magnesium and potassium.

If the animal is down and in distress, call a vet immediately because the pressure in the abdomen will quite soon stop the lungs and heart from working. The vet will release the gas with a trochar (a sharp hollow surgical instrument with a retractable center) allowing the gas to escape. The incision is made four fingers width behind the bottom of the ribs on the left side of the goat as it lies.

If the vet is unobtainable, a sharp, pointed knife will work in an emergency. Disinfect first, insert the knife point until the gas starts to escape, twist it slightly, remove the knife, and close the wound once the distension is relieved.

Again, a drench of seaweed meal with dolomite and cider vinegar (about 10 fluid ounces altogether) should be given as soon as possible to build up the magnesium and potassium in the system.

With bloat, prevention is easier than the cure — or death. Have the paddocks analyzed as soon as possible and top dress with the necessary lime minerals. Do not use chemical fertilizers under any circumstances. If the bloated goats are still feeding on the paddock that caused the trouble, make sure that all the necessary minerals are in the ration. Seaweed meal should be ad lib as usual.

Diarrhea (Scouring)

Intestinal worms and infections, cobalt, copper deficiencies and enterotoxemia are the most usual causes of this complaint. Other reasons can be imbalance in the feed, paddocks too high in nitrate-rich feed such as capeweed, and feed that produces acidity. In small kids overfeeding of milk often causes mild scouring.

For an adult a dessertspoon of dolomite, a quarter of a teaspoon of copper sulfate and the dessertspoon of vitamin C down the throat is always worth trying first, especially if there are no other signs of illness. If the goat is listless, lacking in appetite or has cold ears, suspect a cobalt shortfall and give two ml of VAM and two ml of vitamin B12 intramuscularly. Quite often both or either will clear the scouring up. Scouring is not (as is generally supposed) always caused by worms. Hungerford’s Diseases of Livestock states that unexplained scouring is often due to a copper deficiency and sheep farmers have found that weaner lambs have responded to half a teaspoon of copper and the same of dolomite quite remarkably when all else failed. The same could be tried with young goats, the dolomite should always be given at the same time (a teaspoon of dolomite and a quarter teaspoon of copper sulfate).

If intestinal infection is suspected, treat as for enterotoxemia (see section on that ailment).

Scouring, especially in kids, often kills by dehydration. Make sure they receive enough liquids, two ml of Vitec Stock drench in 100 ml of water would be safe, but no extra milk. In cases of adults with heavy scouring, minerals are lost from the system and need to be replaced. Drenching with 10 ml of the Vitec liquid, a teaspoon of dolomite and cider vinegar made up to one pint with water, will help replace them. This condition should not arise in animals properly supplemented with ad lib seaweed, and/or the stock lick. In very severe cases an electrolyte replacer may also be used.

In any obstinate case of scouring, presuming it is not due to worms, an injection of vitamin C should be given daily until it stops — four grams for an adult, half the dose for a kid. All this is assuming that the goats are on a tested and remineralized paddock.

Enterotoxemia (Pulpy Kidney)

This is caused by the organism Clostridium Welchii and/or occasionally Clostridium Perfringens D. Both are normal inhabitants of the gut and only when the goat is under nutritional or other stress — usually worms — do these organisms start to proliferate and in so doing give off a deadly toxin.

David Mackenzie in the first (not updated) edition of Goat Husbandry claimed that immunization against entero was not necessary in properly looked after goats. He knew nothing of the often terrible environmental conditions in which goats farmed in Australia are expected to live. But, even so, in goats whose mineral requirements are fully met, changes in habitat or feed — often the cause of an entero attack — make no difference to their health. In fact, many vets have told me in recent years they consider entero to be a much over-rated disease in goats because, on the average, goat farmers see to the mineral requirements of their stock. Unfortunately vaccination, two-in-one for entero and tetanus, often only confers a false sense of security to the goat owner. A vaccinated goat can develop entero (or tetanus) just as easily as an unvaccinated one if the conditions are right for either disease. A goat that is dying from some other cause usually is stricken down by entero in the final stages. Vaccination makes no difference to this process.

Kids and young stock are most prone to entero because usually older goats have developed an immunity. Therein lies a large snag. If an older goat that has developed its own immunity — either naturally from contact or from an earlier vaccination — is given an entero vaccination, it may die from anaphylaxis and this will happen very fast. Do not vaccinate all new arrivals as a matter of course, they are better left alone if up in years and their previous history is not known.

Signs of entero are misery and scouring which, if not attended to, rapidly reach the stage where the animal loses the use of its back legs. In advanced cases the scour will contain sloughed off pieces of intestine. Unlike sheep, where entero kills fairly fast, goats always give the farmer plenty of warning and time to take remedial action.

An excellent initial treatment is quarter of a pint of warm cooking oil; this always seems to be beneficial in any case of bad scouring. Give 10 grams of vitamin C, with one gram of vitamin B12 and two ml VAM in the same syringe, by injection. Then two teaspoons (10 grams) of ascorbic acid powder orally, followed by a large teaspoon of each of the following: dolomite, slippery elm powder and crushed garlic tablets. Repeat all except the oil, B12 and VAM at two hour intervals.

I had a vaccinated Angora buck boarding with me many years ago. When I found him in the last stages of entero, after I’d been out for the day, with bits of his gut in the scour and he was unable to walk, I was wondering how I was going to explain his death to the owner. He was very valuable and destined for the sales four days later. I took the measures listed above and by the time I went to bed he was back on his feet taking an interest in life once more. I continued the vitamin C injections for the next three days, but he was back to normal feeding by next day. He was washed and duly presented at the sales on time.

There is an antitoxin available for enterotoxemia; I have only used it three times when goats under my care were dying from capeweed poisoning. In all three cases, the does which had kidded normally before, produced abnormal kids next time. Coincidence or not, it was enough to make me decide not to use it again. None of the kids from other does who were not given the antitoxin showed any abnormalities.

Foot and Mouth Disease

This is a notifiable disease in Australia (and many other countries). Call the vet immediately if in doubt; most foot and mouth scares here have turned out to be just that. There have only been two outbreaks here as far as I know — one in Melton in the 1880s, and one in Gippsland this century — and both cleared up very quickly. The disease appears to like colder and wetter conditions than those found in Australia.

It only affects cloven-hooved animals and signs are sudden lameness and dribbling, with small vesicles around the feet, between the toes and in and around the mouth area. It is acutely painful and animals lose condition very fast. Foot and mouth disease is endemic in many countries, including some of our nearer neighbors. In Europe birds are usually blamed for its spread.

Anyone who has lived through a foot and mouth outbreak in a country like the United Kingdom where total eradication is the policy, and seen whole herds of cattle slaughtered to prevent its spread, will realize that the disease is best avoided at all costs. The organism can live 120 days on clothing, possibly longer, so if travelling take great care to have clothing and footwear disinfected on re-entry. Foot and mouth disease is reputedly endemic in the islands to the north of Australia.

Goats seldom contract the disease, possibly because their mineral intake gives them a degree of immunity. In Europe total eradication is not carried out (as it will be here) so that valuable genetic material can be saved. There are documented cases from Europe of cattle who had free access to seaweed meal failing to catch foot and mouth even after close contact with the disease. It is a highly contagious disease. Dettman and Kalokerinos report that it has been cured with megadoses of vitamin C. Thirty years ago in Holland cows on ad lib seaweed meal did not succumb during an epidemic.

Injury

Call a vet if possible, especially if there is badly torn flesh. All wounds must be thoroughly disinfected straight away. Any good germicide will do and it is important to do a thorough job as the initial disinfecting should be the last. Years ago the vets taught me that disinfectant of any sort inhibits healing and should not be used more than once. Both tetanus and blackleg are the result of uncleaned (often unnoticed) wounds. Fresh, clean cuts can be disinfected quite easily and then stitched with an upholstery or surgical needle and linen thread, both properly disinfected. The goats I have done showed absolutely no discomfort, and did not appear to feel what I was doing. If they do, try to get a vet to give a local anaesthetic.

If a vet is unobtainable, after disinfection tidy up badly torn wounds as best you can. Put on a packing of comfrey ointment if possible, otherwise aloe vera — Septicide and Savlon are good proprietary lines. If none of these are available, use a dressing thoroughly soaked in Flints Oils and bind up the wound. If the wound is deep and has not bled much, tetanus or blackleg will be a real possibility. The former takes around 10 or more days to come out, the latter three or four. If a vet is available the goat will have been given antitoxin for both, otherwise keep the animal on an elevated oral dose of vitamin C for the 10 day period, a dessertspoon a day (about 10 grams) would prevent either disease and any other condition that might arise.

Once the wound is safely bandaged give four grams of vitamin C by intramuscular injection, as well as some form of supplementary vitamin E — about 2,000 units either by dissolved capsule or injection (intramuscular). Continue with the oral dose as suggested above. If there is any sign of blood poisoning, like heat around the wound or elevated temperature, resume the injections of vitamin C until they disappear.

Mastitis

There are several types of mastitis, all caused by different organisms, but in a doe that is being properly fed (i.e., receiving her dolomite and minerals in their correct levels regularly) mastitis should not occur. Too high protein in the diet can be a causative factor, this depresses the copper and when that happens the immune system does not function as it should. If the protein in the food is excessive, lower it.

If a doe persistently becomes infected with mastitis, have her tested for Caprine Arthritis Encephalitis. It is, sadly, the usual reason for the inability of the immune system to do its task. She is incurable, except in the short term, if that.

All mastitis appears to be due to an imbalance in the health of the udder, particularly the pH, caused by incorrect calcium/magnesium ratios in the diet. Cows and goats that are regularly supplemented with dolomite in their ration stay free from the disease. Many cow dairymen as well as goat farmers have found this, as did I, from the first time I was told about dolomite in the late sixties. For reasons as yet unknown, low levels of these minerals place the udder at risk for invasive bacteria. Diseases only occur when the food is unbalanced and missing the proper nutrients.

There is no doubt that badly adjusted milking machines can be a causative factor, but the cowmen to whom I have suggested using dolomite used milking machines. They said that mastitis (and acetonemia) became a thing of the past from the time they started to feed it. As stated, feeding a diet too high in protein can also be a causative factor — check the section on feeding.

I ran up against this with English commercial goat keepers. I had forgotten how good the soils were over there and the fodder on offer had double the protein we would get here. Extra copper added to the ration of any goat getting mastitis made the dolomite and vitamin C work, but on their own they did not.

The advantage of using vitamins and minerals to cure mastitis is that the goat does not develop drug resistance — nor is the farmer left with a goat with a wrecked udder, as often happens when drugs are used. When an antibiotic is used on mastitis, a new one has to be found next time. I was told to destroy all my oldest goats with subclinical mastitis as they were incurable, which was when I had to find an alternative because my goats were too valuable.

I learned about adjusting the calcium/magnesium balance originally from Mrs. Maura Mackay who used to run a goat dairy before they changed over to breed the famous Glenroy Angoras. I used dolomite alone to cure many stubborn cases of mastitis in the early days as some of the goats I originally bought had advanced staph mastitis. I was informed by the sellers that lumps in the udder were hereditary. When I first learned to use vitamin C as well as the dolomite, I found that the cure worked considerably faster.

Long standing cases where the udder is a total wreck are usually beyond anyone’s powers, particularly with organisms like Klebsiella, which have usually moved in by that stage.

One doe I bought, who had not been milkable for three years because of staph mastitis, became a useful member of the herd after four weeks of treatment. She was given a dessertspoon of dolomite and vitamin C powder daily, as well as the routine dolomite and other minerals in her feed. I also gave her a course of five grams of vitamin C by injection for the first three days.

The alert farmer may nip mastitis in the bud by being observant at milking time — a doe who kicks and makes an unusual fuss at milking should be carefully checked.

Kinds of Mastitis

Black mastitis, Streptococcus, staphylococcus, myco- plasma agalactia, klebsiella, and possibly CAE as a predisposing factor in some cases, are some of the organisms that can invade an unhealthy udder and cause mastitis.

Black Mastitis

This is the term for a very sudden and severe attack of mastitis. In a matter of an hour or two the whole udder will become contused and, unless immediate action is taken, it will be wrecked and the goat will die. In such a case the doe may be alright at morning milking and be in extremis five or less hours later, often following a wound. The udder is hot, hard and inflamed and the goat is obviously very ill with a high temperature. In severe cases that are not treated immediately, the udder will turn a greenish color and slough off (if the doe lives long enough).

Quick action is essential. Five grams of intravenous vitamin C first, if possible; if not, give intramuscularly with a heaped teaspoon of dolomite and the same of vitamin C orally. My cattle dairy farmers are using six percent pharmaceutical grade hydrogen peroxide for this complaint and one of them told me he cured a cow with black mastitis the same day. A goat would need three ml of hydrogen peroxide straight into the teat orifice, break it down 50 percent with rainwater. If this works as well as it did with the cattle it will be a breakthrough because one has to be very quick to cure this complaint. Repeat the entire regimen described above in one hour, then every three hours for the first day and again the second day if no improvement is seen. Otherwise continue to give the oral dose night and morning, with five cc of vitamin C by injection daily until the udder starts to look and feel normal. Cease the injections, but continue with the oral dose of vitamin C and dolomite daily until all lumps are gone. This usually takes about ten days. During this time, milk the udder out as gently and as much as possible. The doe will need careful and patient handling.

Clinical Mastitis

This is usually due to a streptococcus infection. The milk becomes viscous, stringy and offensive. Treatment as above will bring about a recovery.

Subclinical Mastitis

This is an insidious complaint usually caused by a staph infection and is difficult to diagnose. The first sign will be that the milk, instead of keeping the usual seven to 10 days, will "go off" by the third or fourth day which clean, properly cooled milk from healthy goats does not do. The test for subclinical mastitis cannot be done with a rapid mastitis check, it has to be plated for at least 36 hours for diagnosis. If the condition is allowed to continue unchecked, round, hard lumps will start forming in the udder and eventually the doe will become ill and the udder useless.

A heaped teaspoon each of dolomite and vitamin C powder night and morning for three days, or as long as it takes for the milk to be tested clear, will effect a cure. The lumps, if long standing, may take a week or two of this treatment to disperse.

Mastitis Caused by Avocado Foliage

It is only in the last few years that farmers have realized that this can happen to both cows and goats. Initially, the avocado reduces the amount of milk quite materially and, if the beasts are not prevented from grazing it, mastitis follows. Do not allow goats (or other lactating animals) to eat avocado trees.

Procedures

In all cases of mastitis, milk out the affected animals as usual, but milk them after the healthy animals and take strict hygienic precautions. The mandatory dose of "dry cow" when a goat goes dry (if she does) is quite unnecessary if the does (fresh milkers as well) are fed their normal amount of minerals regularly. This, of course, includes cider vinegar fed on a regular basis; it is another great help in complete udder health, 10 to 20 ml a day per goat.

Metritis

This is an inflammation of the uterus and quite often the only sign is slightly lowered health. It can occur at any time, not always just after kidding. Sometimes a slight offensive discharge is seen, but more often it is lowered health that alerts the farmer. Metritis should not occur in healthy animals. In recent years it seems to have been confined to CAE-positive does. A vet will confirm the presence of the disease. If it occurs out of the breeding season, the vet will possibly say the same thing that I was told when one of my goats first contracted it: "Feed her up well and she will get over it." I did just that and by the breeding season the swab was clear (this has to be done when the doe is in season).

However, a base lack of the necessary vitamins A and D is the chief cause for all diseases of this kind. Extra vitamin A in the form of a teaspoon of cod liver oil orally for three days, with a dessertspoon of vitamin C orally for the same time, will usually make certain the next swab is clear. However if the doe is very ill, five grams of vitamin C by injection should be given daily for three days as well, followed by a dessertspoon of the powder orally for at least a week. Continue with the vitamin A and D for the same time. (If does contract metritis out of the breeding season, it may well be seven months before they can be swabbed). These uterine disturbances often mean that the doe’s diet has been low in vitamin A — due to drought or poor quality feed. A long dry period puts animals who do not get their cod liver oil occasionally at risk.

Any doe that has had metritis whether on the farm or coming for service must have a clear swab (done when she first comes into season) before going to the buck again.

Metritis can make milk unsafe to drink and it must be heat treated before being fed to a kid (goat) or human.

Milk Fever

This is not really a fever, rather the reverse. The doe will be low in spirits to the point of lethargy following kidding. She will have poor muscle control, difficulty in standing at all, her pupils will be enlarged because the eye muscles have relaxed — all very similar to snake bite.

The sudden drain of calcium and magnesium from the doe’s system following kidding will mean there is not enough to sustain her. Milk fever does not seem to occur in does who have been receiving the correct minerals.

Quick action is necessary or she will die, give calcium borogluconate (with magnesium) or any proprietary milk fever preparation as per directions on the bottle. This is easily obtained at any farm store. The injections can be given in four doses to speed the process. Give injections to each side of the shoulder and each side of the rump. Hungerford states in his works that this injection must include both calcium and magnesium.

Some does are more prone to milk fever than others, usually (but not invariably) the high producers. It would be wise to give them a little extra dolomite coming up to kidding and an A, D and E injection.

Poisons

Poisonous plants have been covered in Chapter 6. Other toxic materials are occasionally met on the goat farm.

Arsenic

I have nursed a goat through this form of poisoning. She was vomiting and it is rare for a goat to do that and live. Her breath had a strange smell and she was in a state of total collapse. I used everything I knew, massive intramuscular injections of vitamin C (10 grams), B12 (three ml), B1 (three cc), B15 (three ml), vitamin E (2,000 units orally). A tablespoon of vitamin C and the same of dolomite were also given orally with slippery elm. Both of these have an absorbent action in the case of toxins. All this was given every hour for the first few hours until the extreme signs abated — it took 12 hours of fighting before I realized that she would live. A hollow victory, because further enquiry elicited the fact that arsenic causes chromosome, bone marrow and possible renal damage and, in spite of all efforts, the doe was never very strong again — but one has to try.

Fireweed (Senecio spp.)

This is generally found in the northern parts of New South Wales and invariably grows on very poor, played-out land. A farmer who had top dressed his fireweed-infested farm three years ago in northern New South Wales called to tell me it was all gone the following year — much easier and more effective than pulling it up. He spread the lime, gypsum and dolomite as advised on the soil analysis.

Goats would not normally eat fireweed unless grazing was very scarce, which it usually is if the land is poor enough for it to proliferate. There is no sign of any malaise for about 18 months. The doe I had kidded normally and a few months later she started to go down hill. I was fighting with everything I knew; the vets had no clue as to how to treat her either. Then I went up to Queensland to talk at a goat seminar and Dr. Ross Mackenzie was one of the speakers; he spoke on poison plants (see the excellent book he and Ralph Dowling wrote in the bibliography) and he mentioned the poisonous action of fireweed and its effects on animals. The description so exactly fitted my doe that I had a talk with him saying she had come from northern New South Wales. He told me to post-mortem her when I got home and that I would find the liver had become, small, flat and hard and the edges would have a scalloped appearance. He was right and I kicked myself for having let her suffer.

Nitrate Poisoning

The classic sign of this sort of poisoning is a strange sweet smell on the scour. It is quite unlike the smell of normal manure or of a scouring goat with intestinal disturbances — and only occurs with nitrate poisoning. Motor disturbances, such as convulsing at sudden noises, could easily cause the condition to be mistaken for tetanus in the first instance, as was done by the vet and myself in the first case I had.

As mentioned in Chapter 6, Dr. Selwyn Everist said that vitamin C was the only remedy he could suggest, but it does not always work. An initial injection of five to seven grams followed by a teaspoon of ascorbic acid and dolomite powder, a drench of 10 ml of Vitec liquid seaweed should be given immediately. I found that the poisoning had set up a long-term fatal iodine deficiency. The deaths stopped once I made iodine available in the form of ad lib seaweed meal. On post-mortem the blood appears a black color due to lack of oxygen, have it checked.

Organophosphate Poisoning

This poisoning is the most dreaded by any vet or doctor because there is so little that can be done. According to Dr. Kalokerinos, vitamins C, A, E, and zinc are the best antidotes for humans. This saved some alpacas willfully poisoned in New Zealand some years ago. The latter could be introduced in the form of seaweed meal in small quantities as it contains high zinc. Give a teaspoon a day and let the goat take more if it wants it. For one week provide daily doses of 60,000 units of vitamin A, 20 grams orally (two tablespoons) of vitamin C orally and 10 cc daily by injection, and 2,000 units of vitamin E either orally in dissolved capsules or by injection. This poisoning would be very much a case of "playing it by ear"; it will depend on good nursing and offering any feed that the animal would take — no grain in any form — just bran, alfalfa chaff and green stuff, depending on the rate of recovery.

Phosphorus

This is found in some rat and vermin baits and produces a sweet smell on the breath accompanied by a craving for water. On no account must the goat be allowed to touch any liquid — the phosphorus needs water to activate its lethal effects which burn the intestines away. If it has drunk, shoot it as quickly as possible or it will die in awful agony. Give the goat egg whites (six at a time) mixed with a little glucose every hour by mouth and by injection provide five cc of vitamin C and one cc of B12 every three hours. These must be given until the animal shows signs of relief. This procedure may have to go on around the clock for 24 to 48 hours (it took 36 hours with a dog under the instructions of a vet). The burning sensation in the gut makes the animal stretch as though trying to cool its abdomen. Once it is recovered a drink of milk and water, about two pints all together, may be given and gradually the goat can be reintroduced to bland feed and green stuff.

Prussic Acid

The antidote is a neutralizing substance such as pharmaceutical chalk or fine dolomite. Either should be mixed with water and drenched in — a tablespoon of powder in 200 ml of water, both work equally well and fast. This poison is most usually found in young sugar gum shoots and occasionally in wilted peach tree leaves.

Poison Baits

If the constituent is unknown (but not 1080) proceed as for arsenic poisoning. Once the animal is stable give 10 cc of vitamin C by injection and 1,000 units of vitamin E (consult the bottle) by injection daily. A dessertspoon of sodium ascorbate and bland feed, such as bran and alfalfa chaff, as well as branches and good grass — all will aid in recovery.

Slug Bait (Metaldehyde)

Goats should not usually have access to slug bait. However I had a case where a goat got into the garden and ate an ice cream container of bait. I had chased her out and did not know she had eaten it until after she was cured. That evening she came into milking looking very ill indeed and, having no clue as to the cause, I gave her 10 grams of vitamin C by injection. She looked much better the next day so I gave her half the initial quantity and then noticed that she had a row of bumps down her spine. These came up as large boils so I continued the 10 grams of vitamin C daily until they cleared up and burst. She recovered fully and then I found the empty bait container and realized what had happened. Since then no poisons whatsoever have figured on my farm.

1080

This poison is made up of 23 ppm sodium fluoride (fluoro-acetate). If the antidote, which is glycerol mono-acetate, is not given within 20 minutes of ingesting the bait — shoot the goat. When carrots are used as a baiting medium and birds pick them up and drop them, goats taking in 1080 is real possibility.

The animal will live for three or four hours after taking the bait and die in terrible pain. The antidote cannot work after the initial 20 minutes. Vets do not, as a rule, carry the antidote because it is expensive and apparently does not keep indefinitely. The vet who investigated this for me after we tried in vain to save a neighbor’s dog, said it was also very difficult to obtain. I am told that 1080 does not cause pain, both the vet and I would seriously query this; the dog died in her surgery.

Fluoride — as in reticulated water (sodium fluoride)

This substance has an enzyme-inhibiting action. This is caused by fluoride rendering calcium and magnesium unobtainable in the body. Without magnesium the enzyme system cannot function according to a paper recently printed in the Townsend Letter for Doctors from the United States. Fortunately this does not too often affect goats, although I have read of one herd that was quite unwell until they were taken off fluoride treated reticulated water.

Snakebite

Snakebite either kills instantaneously by immediate nervous paralysis or, more usually, by slow loss of muscle control which allows time to deal with the problem. The eye muscle is the first to relax; the pupil appears to be spread right across the eye. People often call me and say that their animal is ill and the eye "looks all funny and black."

In the section on milk fever I mentioned that the signs were almost identical. Loss of motor control is the next step, followed by death in bad cases, or a long illness if the bite was low in venom.

Give 15 cc of vitamin C by injection intramuscularly in the side of the neck and repeat in two hours if necessary, although often the first dose is enough. There is no use in looking for a vein to do an intravenous injection because when an animal is in a state of shock, as in snakebite, the veins collapse and cannot be found. Failing injectable vitamin C, give a heaped teaspoon by mouth every half hour until the goat looks better. The first time I cured a goat of snakebite was before vitamin C injections became obtainable. The goat was bitten on the mouth. (I did not find this out until two days later). Somehow some of the venom must have landed in his eyes because they had clouded over, so I gave him vitamins A and D as well as the heaped teaspoon of vitamin C. He was staggering a little, but was quite alright half an hour later. I repeated the dose once more. The puncture marks, when they did show up, were on the top lip and it appeared slightly swollen, so I squeezed out some clear colored fluid.

Keep the patient quiet and comfortable until it is back on its feet and eating well. The great advantage of using vitamin C — pioneered by American Dr. Klenner in the 1930s and much used by a Californian dog vet (Dr. Bellfield, DVM) — is that the type of snake is totally immaterial, which is not the case if antivenin is to be used. So often one never sees the snake anyway and vitamin C is also cheaper and more easily available. In my experience (vets tell me I am unlucky), anaphylactic shock to a lesser or greater degree can follow the use of antivenin and it is almost worse than the bite. Another disadvantage of antivenin is that if it has to be used twice in a short time, a reaction is inevitable and could kill.

If the location of the bite can be found — do not waste time looking for it until after the vitamin C treatment has been implemented — rub some sodium ascorbate powder well into it as this effectively stops the pain which can be considerable. (I rate a red-backed spider bite as the most painful bite I have experienced, the pain went away within three minutes of rubbing the vitamin C well in). However, often it is not possible, as in the case above, to see the bite marks until the hair falls way from around them. Goats bitten on the udder are a different story, nothing seems to help the udder. The bite generally does not affect the rest of the animal, but in the one case I had it totally wrecked the udder. Try large doses of vitamin C with extra dolomite, it might work or, as in blackleg, putting the vitamin C straight into the udder might work. I saved the udder on another doe that had been bitten by using hydrogen peroxide as for black mastitis. Prevention is always easier than cure — put bells on the collars of the goats. Anyone handy at brazing can make them from copper or brass pipe. Snakes are reputedly deaf, but they can definitely sense the vibrations from bells. I never had another goat bitten once I fitted them and tiger snakes were endemic on that farm.

The vitamin C dosage should be 2 mls to a gram, nothing less. There have been cases of snakebite where the animals died from too low a dose of vitamin C.

Worms

Drenches

In Australian Goat Husbandry, written in 1978, I wrote that good husbandry and not drenches was the long term answer to worms. Twenty years later it is truer than ever; drench resistance — which means that the worms mutate to cope with each drench as it is invented — is a fact of life.

When I was doing a talk for the local Department of Agriculture, the convener said as he introduced me: "Well, I hope you have an answer to worms, they are becoming resistant to drenches faster than they can make the new ones." Quite so. Before that, when talking to a Department of Agriculture vet who was monitoring the bloods sent up for CAE testing, he asked me what I was up to now — a fairly common question in the profession. I told him I had forsaken chemical drenches and was using copper and that it was working: "Thank God for that because soon we will need something that will work and go on working." Again, quite so.

Natural Resistance

As in other species, there are hereditary lines of goats with resistance to worms. I was fortunate to have one such line. They needed one third the amount of drenches that the others did — before I learned to improve my management and keep the worm problem at bay. Careful record keeping will show up the characteristic. However we cannot pin our faith in a number which is probably .00001 of the total population.

Seasonal Upsurges in Parasitic Worms

Strict adherence to the practice and principles of organic farming are really the only long-term defense. Nature did not intend animals to be wiped out by worms (nor did she intend Australia to be inhabited by our domestic stock). David Mackenzie’s statement that worms are needed to preserve a balance in the gut at times of extra high protein in the spring pasture was sound in the United Kingdom, Europe and maybe New Zealand — unfortunately not here. In Australia, due to our inherently poor soil, the herbage does not become too rich. Farmers who do not realize that at kidding time (spring) there is a natural upsurge of worms in the gut, will find themselves with dead goats unless the supplements are being fed. Since I learned to see that all goats got their copper regularly in the ration, I have not had to give what we called the "kidding drench." The copper in the system stops a blow-out in the worm population.

Restoring Soil Health to Encourage Soil Fauna

If the soil has been analyzed and remineralized and the pH is in reasonable balance — between 5.0 and 6.5 — earth worms, dung beetles and the soil mycorrhiza will, between them, take down and process the dung just as fast as they can obtain it. Parasitic worms can do no harm underground, they need damp pasture so that the larvae can crawl up the grass and be ingested.

A word of warning here; according to Acres U.S.A., tests running for two years from 1988 in the United States reported that manure from animals treated with the Ivermectin group of drugs was not processed by soil fauna.

Good Husbandry

Good husbandry is the other weapon of the farmer. A goat given a choice will not go out and graze damp grass — they are browsers by nature and worms do not live in trees. On damp days goats must have hay ad lib so they are not forced by hunger to graze dewy worm-infested herbage. In the higher rainfall areas, they should have hay on demand at all times. Overstocking is another potent cause of worm problems.

Worms in Winter and Summer

In areas of Europe and the United States where there is a winter freeze up, and in the drier belts of Australia and the United States, there is virtually a closed season for worms. They cannot operate in freezing or extremely dry conditions. But in the more temperate parts of the world usually chosen for goat dairying (partly due to the proximity of markets) this does not apply — worms thrive all the year round.

Goats are clever animals. Watch them when they go out to graze. If they have a choice and plenty of room, they will first graze the areas that the sun has been on longest, ensuring that the grass they graze is dry and relatively clear of worm larvae and eggs.

Alternating Paddocks and Giving Goats a Choice

Another weapon against worms is to run stock that do not share the same type of worms. With goats, horses are the only animal that is suitable. If the horses are well mannered and handled there should be no problem, but on no account allow the goats to be chased. Buck paddocks should be alternated and spelled regularly and be big enough to put a horse in when the bucks come out, so that the horse can graze them to the ground. Then a few buckets of dolomite can be spread and the runs left until the fresh new growth comes away. I found this a very successful strategy for years and the bucks were hardly ever wormed. Do not run goats with sheep or cattle if it is avoidable. As a preference, allow a year to elapse before running goats on sheep country. If the land has been tested and remineralized, followed by aeration, this time can be cut considerably. I have always let the goats have the run of the farm — I have "goat bars" on the gates. This is a bar about three feet long with a hole at each end with a split link and strong snap clip in it. This bar is fastened at one end to the gate and at the other end to the fence, keeping the gate open, but horses are prevented from pushing through. Similarly the fences are usually made with one high "sight" (white) wire, with two or three plain strands underneath, confining the horses but allowing the goats to pass where they will.

Signs of Worm Infestation

Signs of wormy goats are runny eyes, picky appetite, lowered milk yield, scouring, anemia with some types of worms and occasionally bottle jaw (illustrated in the section on liver fluke). Any or all of these signs can mean worm infestation.

Copper and Worms

Hungerford, in his Diseases of Livestock, avers that unexplained scouring is nearly always caused by a copper deficiency. After two years of experimenting with copper levels in stock, I would enlarge on that and say that any animal receiving its correct amount of copper will not be troubled by worms (The Albrecht Papers confirm this.)

It seems that no one really knows what are the correct copper requirements of a goat. Following the publication of an article I sent to the United Kingdom about colored goats and copper needs, some vets decided to work out what these were. Initially they started by trying to fix a fatal level for the mineral. They administered what they considered to be a lethal dose to a white goat (which does not need so much copper as a colored one) and then waited for it to die. At the time of the letter telling me of the experiment (a few weeks after the experiment), the goat had never looked better and flatly refused even to be ill.

Old-fashioned Drenches

The two drenches most commonly in use before proprietary drenches became the norm were copper sulfate with either nicotine sulfate or lead arsenate — both the latter are poisonous and, luckily, unobtainable now — so not surprisingly this mixture killed a few animals. I did know a few people who kept their goats healthy by giving them a plug of good quality pipe tobacco occasionally.

Apparently, not very many people used straight copper sulfate although, in early 1960 I asked the landlords for a worm dose for an old reprobate who passed as a goat (which they had given me), they sent down a tablespoon of copper sulfate. I drenched her with it — not knowing any better or worse. After the copper sulfate the goat looked better and that was that.

Using Copper Sulfate as a Vermifuge

Dr. William A. Albrecht, a highly qualified and much respected soil scientist who studied in the United States, but lectured all over the world (including Australia), did much research with minerals and plants and animals. His work on copper is of particular interest. He found that the Bordeaux mixture we used so successfully on our orchard trees (made up of lime and copper sulfate) did not actually kill the fungus by contact as was supposed. The tree absorbed the copper, and fungus will not stay on a plant with adequate copper in its tissues. Similarly, he found that when animals which had been given copper sulfate recovered from worms, the copper did not actually kill the worms, rather the copper was absorbed by the animal and no worms of any kind would stay in or suck blood from an animal that has plenty of copper in its tissues. I and others had experimented along these lines for 10 years with horses, cattle, sheep and goats, with 100 percent success.

Initially I tried a maintenance dose with the goats which I kept up for nine months, but it was so high that it seemed unrealistic. At that rate (a small teaspoon of copper sulfate per head per day), each goat was receiving the equivalent of nearly a two pounds of copper sulfate per year, so I cut the amount to half. After that I did occasionally have to give extra copper. During that nine months, the goats were mated and kidded without having to be wormed as usual. Additionally, the first kidders did not get the almost mandatory dose of cowpox, there were no foot problems in spite of the fact that it was an abnormally wet winter, and they never looked better. Ninety-five percent of them were British Alpines, the other five percent were either Saanens or all blacks, but they all received the same dose of copper sulfate per head daily, run through their feed. The farm was also low in copper.

Permanent Supplementation

A simple stock lick recipe for fiber and meat goats consisting of 25 pounds of dolomite, 4 pounds of yellow dusting sulfur, 4 pounds of copper sulfate and 4 pounds of seaweed meal seems to work very well with paddock animals. The lick must be kept dry, if not, the dolomite will neutralize the copper and the main purpose of the lick will be lost. A shelter of some kind is probably the best course because the type of feeder used for sheep would not be big enough for horned goats. The only possible addition to this lick, where the cobalt levels are very low on the analysis, would be about a quarter of a pound of cobalt sulphate. This lick can be used as a dairy supplement at the rate of two grams per head per day and it would also be a good idea to have seaweed on free access as well. For hand-fed goats I run the copper sulfate through the feed at a rate of a full teaspoon per head per week. Dark-colored goats may need more than this and the rate can be increased; those who run the all blacks should make a note. If the copper is incorporated in the water that soaks the barley (as well as the cider vinegar and any other minerals such as cobalt or boron (borax) that are needed), it is mixed in with the dry feed and also dampens it; so the copper intake is as near natural as can be managed.

Drenching

If a drench is needed — and I do not advocate it because I find it is unnecessary even at kidding time if the normal supplementation of copper has been ongoing — I use a teaspoon of dolomite, half a teaspoon of copper sulfate and a teaspoon of vitamin C powder. Put this dry straight into the mouth from a film container.

Veterinary Reactions

See the comments in Drenching section. Several other vets (but not all) with whom I have discussed these worm strategies are interested in the possibilities; they realize only too well we are somewhere near the end of the line with chemical drenches. It is not necessary to withhold milking after drenching with copper. With proprietary drenches, one goat through the milking line by mistake and the whole day’s milk has to be thrown out — it’s happened to me.

A British Veterinary Codex lent to me for notes by Dr. Greg Morrison (a retired veterinary surgeon) did list copper as a vermifuge and gave amounts slightly below what we use now. But, as mentioned, the copper was mixed with either lead arsenate or nicotine sulfate — no wonder the drench got a bad name.

Natural Wormers

Copper has already been discussed at length throughout "Natural Goat Care"; but there are other herbs and plants that also have a inhibiting action on worms. Honeysuckle and wormwood, both of which goats may help themselves to preferably through a fence, are two such plants; garlic is not an option where milkers are concerned, nor is it 100 percent successful. Chenopodium oil (oil of American wormwood) was used in Europe for many years by sheep and cattle farmers and may still be a standby. I tried to import some years ago, but the chemist who was doing the importation was turned down as soon as he stated why we wanted it

I feel that the last part of this chapter is not necessary, given that the above suggestions mean healthy goats naturally. I include this section only for reference and stress that chemical drenches are not the best way to deal with the problem.

Chemical Drenches

In 1990 I wrote that there were roughly 20 drenches on the market; eight years later many of those have been superseded and many more "cocktails" invented. The chemicals, of which there are about 15, remain roughly the same.

A rough rule of thumb for using drenches is not to alternate although this was very fashionable some years ago. Vet friends agree that it led to massive, persistant and sometimes insoluble drench resistance problems. Use a drench, be it "white" or "gold," for at least a year, or more if the results are satisfactory, before changing. The final resort, when the goats are dry, is the Ivermectin group under the strict supervision of a vet. It is very powerful and kills everything in the system (including the goat if the wrong amount is used) — both beneficial and otherwise — and the milk from that lactation cannot be used again according to industry printouts when these drenches first came out.

Personally, I used the "white" group — the earliest drench that became available — with satisfactory results for 20 years. But I never "strategically" drenched, animals were only drenched when they showed unmistakable signs of infestation. Then the formula was apparently changed and it started to make the goats rather ill, taking three or four days before they came back on their milk again. This was when I started to shop around and finally had to work it out for myself.

Strategic Drenching

Like alternating drenches, this practice has ensured that any drench used will become useless fairly soon. To drench an animal because it is a certain time of year, without taking a worm count, borders on lunacy and yet countless people have done it for years, never thinking what trouble they were laying up for themselves.

It is not good to drench pregnant goats and any goats who have the copper supplied on a permanent basis do not need worming anyway. The moment the doe kids, the act of parturition in some way (hormonal) triggers off a massive upsurge in the worm population. Since using copper I have not had to do a kidding drench at all.

Doing Worm Counts

If the cost is not too prohibitive, having a worm count done on the goats at fairly regular intervals is a good idea. If the goats were found to be wormy and still looked unthrifty, the farmer would have to look to the mineral levels and the copper sulfate in the feed could be raised to two grams daily for a while — which could be a lot cheaper and probably safer than drenching. Purchasing a small microscope and learning how to use it is another option. I know several fiber and meat breeders who have done their own counts quite successfully for years.

Types of Worms

An ICI printout of 1978 listed 11 types of worms commonly found in goats. Many of them do not seem to raise problems in my experience, so I have listed below the most usual ones that cause trouble.

Barber’s Pole Worm (Haemonchus Contortus)

Under a microscope this worm looks like the old-fashioned barber’s pole — white with blood bands (its host’s) running around it. Until the late 1960s no one seems to have been aware of this worm in the southern states, but it has been a dangerous scourge ever since. It is a blood sucking worm which can debilitate a quite healthy looking adult goat with shocking speed and kill kids even faster. Action must be taken at once if it is suspected. It is not a problem in goats who are receiving the correct minerals in their feed or licks.

The worm only becomes a problem with the warm weather and sometimes due to hormonal activity at kidding. In cold weather it encapsulates itself in the gut, doing no harm (nor is it apparently affected by drenches at this stage). Again this does not happen in copper fed goats. I used to have bets with myself on the first really warm day of spring as to how many telephone calls there would be saying that the caller’s goat had suddenly collapsed. I always told them to drench it — and quickly.

Signs of barber’s pole infestation are always anemia — examine the membranes under the eye — and the extreme suddenness of the attack. Other signs of worm infestation such as scouring and runny eyes will show up, but acute and sudden anemia is the chief one. I was brought a kid very late one night that was frothing at the mouth and very ill. It was dark and I feared poison of some sort. I managed to keep it alive half the night, but that was all. The next day I took the body into the local Department of Agriculture. Later on that day, the sister was brought around in the same state, but as it was light, I had a quick look at her eyelids, realized what the problem was and we saved her. Barber’s pole worm — a rapid and insidious killer — the report from the Department confirmed next day.

In the first instance, give a worm drench and a quick acting iron tonic (Ironcyclene is good), and at least two cc of vitamin B12 and VAM by injection; give the B12 every hour if necessary. Injected vitamin C will also be found to be helpful, four to five cc for a kid, double for an older goat (intramuscularly). Once the color of the eyelids starts to return to normal, ensure that the patient receives copper sulfate and has access to its ad lib seaweed meal.

Another insidious characteristic of barber’s pole worm is that, unlike most other worms, it has a life cycle of 10 to 14 days so if there is a parasite problem involving more than one type of worm, it will be necessary to give the backup drench on the 10th, 14th and 21st days to be absolutely safe.

Brown Stomach Worm (Ostertagia sp.)

Another bloodsucker, but this one embeds itself in the walls of the stomach to do its task, as well as being found in the gut — it can be active all the year round.

This is not so sudden or dangerous as barber’s pole, but action should be taken with goats that appear below par and anemic (check that it is not a copper deficiency, see sections on that mineral and iron). A characteristic of treating this worm is that sometimes when drenching for it, the goat will appear to recover and then relapse again the following day. Apparently the drench can only deal with the worms out in the gut; when they are killed, the ones in the stomach wall detach themselves and start to work. So the signs, generally scouring, will persist and the drench must be given two days running. A buck I leased from Western Australia in the 1970s needed four days of drenching before he was alright — he must have had a very heavy infestation. Ostertagia has a three-week life cycle.

Lungworm (Muelaris cappilaris, Dirofilaria immitis)

Persistent coughing and below par animals are the usual sign of a lungworm infestation. Some areas are more prone to it than others. One of the "golden" drenches is usually indicated for lungworm; it will kill the mature and young worms. But check before using that it is specific for both kinds of lungworm. There was much trouble some years ago because some drenches were only formulated for Meularis, not for Dirofilaria and drenching often did no good at all.

The danger of lungworm infestation is that, if there are a lot of worms in the lungs, the drench suddenly killing them gives the goat a lung full of dead worms and these in effect cause mechanical pneumonia. The goat dies from suffocation — it has happened a number of times. If a very heavy infestation is suspected give a drench that is not specific for lungworm first, some of the "white" drenches are usually suitable, so that the worms in the intestines are killed. Apparently this gives the ones in the lungs a chance to move on and there is not as great a chance of damage when the correct lungworm drench is used.

Any goat that has been infected with lungworm often has a slight chronic cough for life due to lung scarring. Goats are short on lung area, so try to avoid a lungworm epidemic if possible. Lungworm are not so usual in dry areas, but in some of the wetter places they can be a problem. They have a three week life cycle.

Pin or Thread Worms (Nematodes)

These resemble human thread worms with rather similar signs. They are quite often present without the farmer realizing that anything is amiss. If you see a goat doing a lot of tail wagging when she is patently not in season, have a good look — often the worms can be seen crawling round the anus and setting up an irritation.

Piperazine drenches are highly effective against these worms and I never found any of the others on the market had any effect. Piperazine is not specifically mentioned for goats, but appears to be completely safe. The same powder that is used for poultry can be used quite successfully. Pinworms usually come in with a load of hay, particularly pea hay that has been harvested off old sheep pastures. The eggs are scraped up off the ground with the hay after harvest. They are not a problem in goats who receive their copper.

Roundworms (Strongyle)

This is the most common type of worm and these days it does not rate much publicity. It has a three-week life cycle and occasionally, with careful watching, it can be seen in the droppings. Practically any drench will work against them.

Tapeworm (Monezia expansa)

Goat tapeworm is reputedly species specific and is not the same as those carried by dogs. I was told this was so, but I have heard of transmission that suggested a crossing of species on more that one occasion.

Very pot-bellied kids are quite often infected with tapeworm and careful examination of the feces will sometimes detect the typical white segments of the worm. It is fairly rare and, if suspected (repeated drenching for other species of worm seems to make no difference), have the vet test a sample of manure and he will advise on a drenching program. For years there was only one drench for these worms (Mansonil). Kids and young goats are generally affected, adult goats appear to develop an immunity to tapeworm, which lives in the soil on many farms. The intermediate stage is a soil mite — avoid contaminating pasture if possible as it causes unthrifty kids. Tapeworms dislike copper even more than other species of worm.

Hydatid

These are the exception to the species specific label and can be contracted by goats in the same way that sheep (or any other animal, human included) catches them. Dogs and humans can pick them up from rabbit livers or meat. An area subject to hydatid, and anywhere that sheep have been farmed, is at risk. Make sure the goats are treated for hydatid if necessary. Consult your vet.

Summing up

Having rechecked this section and revived memories of many struggles with all the types of worms mentioned, I realize how trouble free and uncomplicated life has been since we learned to use copper sulfate. Animals are healthier without the poison drenches and I am certainly a lot more relaxed.

Pat Coleby's Natural Cures for Top-10 Goat Ailments

Chapter 10, "Vitamins & the Use of Herbal, Homeopathic & Natural Remedies"

Chapter 11, "Health Problems"

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